Following the idea of L -fuzzy generalized neighborhood systems as introduced by Zhao et al., we will give the join-complete lattice structures of lower and upper approximation operators based on L -fuzzy generalized neighborhood systems. In particular, as special approximation operators based on L -fuzzy generalized neighborhood systems, we will give the complete lattice structures of lower and upper approximation operators based on L -fuzzy relations. Furthermore, if L satisfies the double negative law, then there exists an order isomorphic mapping (...) between upper and lower approximation operators based on L -fuzzy generalized neighborhood systems; when L -fuzzy generalized neighborhood system is serial, reflexive, and transitive, there still exists an order isomorphic mapping between upper and lower approximation operators, respectively, and both lower and upper approximation operators based on L -fuzzy relations are complete lattice isomorphism. (shrink)

Named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most important innovators of the century, Tariq Ramadan is a leading Muslim scholar, with a large following especially among young European and American Muslims. Now, in his first book written for a wide audience, he offers a marvelous biography of the Prophet Muhammad, one that highlights the spiritual and ethical teachings of one of the most influential figures in human history. Here is a fresh and perceptive look at Muhammad, capturing (...) a life that was often eventful, gripping, and highly charged. Ramadan provides both an intimate portrait of a man who was shy, kind, but determined, as well as a dramatic chronicle of a leader who launched a great religion and inspired a vast empire. More important, Ramadan presents the main events of the Prophet's life in a way that highlights his spiritual and ethical teachings. The book underscores the significance of the Prophet's example for some of today's most controversial issues, such as the treatment of the poor, the role of women, Islamic criminal punishments, war, racism, and relations with other religions. Selecting those facts and stories from which we can draw a profound and vivid spiritual picture, the author asks how can the Prophet's life remain--or become again--an example, a model, and an inspiration? And how can Muslims move from formalism--a fixation on ritual--toward a committed spiritual and social presence? In this thoughtful and engaging biography, Ramadan offers Muslims a new understanding of Muhammad's life and he introduces non-Muslims not just to the story of the Prophet, but to the spiritual and ethical riches of Islam. (shrink)

There are numerous interpretations of Plato's theory of justice as it relates to the ideal state, deeply intertwined with his political philosophy. This complexity makes understanding his interlocking ideas challenging, as he seeks to construct a theory of the ideal state. Plato's philosophy of justice, particularly in its political dimension, emphasizes integration as a fundamental factor in grasping his theory. This paper aims to elucidate the original concept of justice in Plato's state by delving into the roots of the Republic, (...) analyzing its historical context. Plato's predictions reflect values and truths connected to politics and philosophy, emphasizing integration as essential to understanding his theory of justice, which lies at the core of his philosophy. This essay compares the relationship between the functions and class structure of the state. Plato classifies human nature into three components: reason, courage, and appetite, which correspond to three major classes in the state. The ruling class, educated in philosophy, governs the state. The military class, characterized by courage and strength, defends the state, while the professional class manages the everyday affairs of governance. Plato's theory posits functional specialization across all classes as fundamental to his ideal state. In essence, while Plato's imagined city may lack historical existence, it holds significant relevance in the realm of speculative human thought. Keywords: Justice. State. Function. Class. Rulers. Guardians. Producers. (shrink)

La "question" de l'islam obsède l'Occident. Religion, laïcité, citoyenneté, immigration, intégration, multiculturalisme, extrémisme : sur ces sujets, tout concourt à détériorer son image. Et que dire de ces jeunes qui partent follement en guerre, au jihâd pensent-ils, pour rejoindre des groupes violents qui trahissent les enseignements les plus élémentaires de l'islam? Dans cette confusion sans précédent, il importe de revenir aux principes et aux notions premières, en quête de solutions concrètes. Quelle conception de l'homme trouve-t-on au coeur du message islamique? (...) Comment le comprendre et l'incarner dans le contexte occidental? Qu'en est-il de l'indispensable libération des femmes? De la conception islamique de la paix et de la guerre? Comment lutter contre l'islamophobie? Questions ici posées, avec rigueur et simplicité, à l'usage des femmes et des hommes, musulmans ou non, désireux de se comprendre, de dialoguer et de vivre ensemble dans la justice et la paix. C'est à un retour aux sources qu'invite Tariq Ramadan, par un nécessaire travail de "défrichage terminologique" autour des notions centrales et trop souvent dévoyées de shahâda (témoignage), de sharî â (voie) et de jihâd (effort). Une introduction sereine à l'humanisme de l'islam. (shrink)

How different do our various religions, philosophies and traditions of thought make us? And can we see past what divides us to discover what we have in common?

Aristotle's primary perspective on the concept of justice is founded on knowledge of the good, which is related to the ethical virtues in Nicomachean Ethics and is separated into two parts: universal justice and specialized justice. In Politics, on the other hand, Aristotle identifies justice as the intrinsic nature of just citizens, noting in both Nicomachean Ethics and Politics, "The political good is justice, and this is a common advantage.".

In this paper, I explore the concept of applied Islamic ethics, the facts, its challenges, and its future. I aim to highlight some of the deep-rooted issues that Muslims have faced historically and continue to experience today as they apply religious guidance to their daily lives. I consider the causes and rationale behind the current situation and look beyond to suggest ways in which this may evolve, calling for a radical reform. Muslims throughout the world are experiencing a deepening crisis (...) of identity and confusion about their faith's principles and practices. I suggest how improvements might be achieved, in order to gain more coherence and understanding. This approach recognizes the importance of inviting an in-depth, deliberate analysis of relevant dialogues between religious experts of the text (scholars) and practitioners, those working at the grassroots. This approach remains faithful to the fundamental principles of the Islamic sources but also considers our present context. I recommend a shift in authority from scholars alone to a more inclusive, critical engagement of practitioners. Through this more comprehensive methodology of applied Islamic ethics, I suggest that Muslim communities, organizations, and individuals can remain faithful to their religious principles while, at the same time, actively participating in and contributing to our evolving societies. While I recognize that this will be a long process, I am confident that with applied Islamic ethics, the current feelings of confusion, self-doubt, and even apathy, given the previous failed processes of adaptation and reform, will give way to a new confidence in knowing how to address contemporary challenges. (shrink)

In this paper, I try to draw a two-way connection between simulation theory and language acquisition. I argue that an individual with better simulation capabilities is at an advantage when it comes to foreign language acquisition, but this also works in the opposite direction in that exposure to many languages leads to better simulation capacities and more empathy. A number of studies relating to the subject of language and simulation will be presented in this paper. An evolutionary explanation and an (...) analysis of the case of children with autism will also be presented to argue in favor of simulation theory over theory theory. (shrink)

Que sont le bien et le mal, le licite et l'illicite? Comment déterminer le «bon comportement» et le sens de la vertu? Tout comme dans la pensée occidentale, la préoccupation éthique est centrale dans la tradition islamique. Pour comprendre ce que recouvre cette notion, il importe de se plonger dans l'histoire de la pensée musulmane. Une mise en perspective qui permet de lier la question des valeurs et de la moralité aux réflexions juridiques (fiqh), mystiques (soufisme) et philosophiques (kalam). Qui (...) détermine le «bon» et le «mauvais» au coeur de l'islam, et comment? Doit-on se référer en priorité aux sources scripturaires (Coran et traditions prophétiques)? La raison n'a-t-elle rien à ajouter? Comment l'éthique islamique s'applique-t-elle dans les domaines de la médecine, de l'économie, de l'environnement, de la psychologie, de l'éducation, des arts? Et comment la relier aux autres traditions religieuses et philosophiques? Le questionnement éthique invite à réfléchir aux finalités des savoirs. A la croisée du droit, de la foi et des sciences, cet ouvrage de synthèse ouvre une voie d'accès claire et rigoureuse à l'essence des débats ayant donné corps à l'éthique islamique. (shrink)

Background Shared decision-making at the threshold of viability is one of the most ethically complex areas of neonatal practice. For neonatal nurses, involvement is shaped by uncertainty, infant suffering, parental vulnerability, hierarchy, and enduring moral responsibility. Aim To explore neonatal nurses’ experiences of shared decision-making with families of periviable infants in Level III neonatal intensive care units, with particular attention to ethical tensions, moral responsibilities, and practice-based challenges. Research design A qualitative Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis study informed by relational ethics. Data (...) were generated through individual semi-structured, in-depth interviews, which were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analysed ideographically using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis. Participants and research context Twelve registered neonatal nurses were purposively recruited from four Level III neonatal intensive care units in one administrative region of Saudi Arabia. All had direct experience caring for periviable infants and participating in decision-making about life-sustaining treatment. Ethical considerations Ethical approval was obtained from the Jouf University Institutional Review Board and the relevant committees of the participating hospitals. Participation was voluntary; written informed consent was obtained; and confidentiality and potential power imbalances were carefully managed. Findings Four superordinate themes were developed: living at the edge of uncertainty and bearing witness to suffering; being morally responsible but not fully authorised; holding families through fractured decision-making; and negotiating ethical practice within institutional and cultural worlds. Nurses described periviable shared decision-making as an ethically complex practice in which uncertainty, constrained authority, relational labour, and moral residue were continuously negotiated. Conclusions Neonatal nurses occupy a central but often insufficiently recognised ethical position in periviable shared decision-making. Ethical practice at the threshold of viability requires structures that recognise nurses’ moral agency, relational work, and ongoing responsibility within interprofessional decision-making and its aftermath. (shrink)

The issue of Palestine is a religious, political and cultural issue that transcends continents; historically, it has hosted the oldest civilizations and the holiest cities, all heavenly religions have been affiliated with it and many prophets have lived in these lands. God Almighty has granted it a number of advantages not granted to others and, starting from this, has created a starting point for Palestine to become one of the most effective and influential issues in its surroundings and even in (...) the entire world. This impact did not only occur in a political dimension, but also went beyond this and transcended thought, culture, economy and other areas. When we look at the literary aspect of the Palestine issue, what it affects, what it is affected by and what is poetically associated with Palestine, we see that Ottoman Turkish literature and modern literature are closely connected to this issue. This connection, which has been politically, historically, intellectually and religiously connected to Palestine since the foundation of the Ottoman Empire, continued until the Turkish Republic. The relationship between Palestine and Turkey continues with problems, different standards and dialectics. How could Palestine, an inseparable part of the Ottoman Empire, not be so important? What confirms the importance that the Ottoman State gave to Palestine is the interest of Suleiman the Magnificent in Palestine and the special attention he showed to it, which is narrated in history books. Similarly, Sultan Abdulhamid II, while rejecting the offers and provocations of the Jews, gave great importance to Palestine and openly stated that the price of Palestine was the price of 800 million Muslims and that he would not surrender Palestine to the Jews as long as he lived. This attitude he displayed even led to his dethronement. However, what interests us in this study is how and what Ottoman literature and especially poetry about Palestine are. In other words, it is the poetic treatment of the Palestinian issue and at a special historical stage. We have limited our research to the scene of the Divan, that is, classical Ottoman poetry, and its relationship with Palestine in terms of its political, artistic, historical, intellectual and doctrinal foundations, so that this will be a threshold that we can rely on in the future. As a matter of fact, it has become an urgent need to complete a comprehensive study in the Arabic language on the relationship between Turkish and Arabic literature, specifically in Palestine. (shrink)

Religious beliefs are defined as thinking, feeling and behaving in accordance with the beliefs and teachings of a religious system. In other words, religious beliefs are indicative of the role of religion in the individual and social life of people, as well as adherence to values and beliefs in daily life, performing religious practices and rituals and participating in activities of religious organisations. Religious beliefs are a set of dos and don'ts, and values are considered one of the most important (...) psychological supports that can provide meaning in all moments of life and save a person from meaninglessness by providing explanatory support in specific situations. In addition, work conscience is defined as a feeling of inner commitment to comply with agreed-upon requirements for work. In other words, work conscience means heartfelt satisfaction and practical commitment to the tasks that a person is supposed to perform properly, in a way that there will be no negligence in performing the duty even if no supervisor oversees the activity. Given the significant role of nurses in hospitals, especially during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the religious beliefs of healthcare employees have become more important. Therefore, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of religious beliefs on the work conscience of 1800 Muslim nurses in Iraq during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021. Standard questionnaires were applied to assess the respondents' religious beliefs and work conscience. In addition, data analyses (Cronbach's alpha, Pearson's correlation, etc.) were performed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). According to the results, religious beliefs have a positive effect on nurses' work conscience (p = 0.822). CONTRIBUTION: The findings of this study showed that the employees of an organisation, especially nurses and healthcare staff, can rely on their religious beliefs and benefit from their advantages in order to strengthen their work conscience during a hard time such as the COVID-19 pandemic. (shrink)

Virtual screening is the most critical process in drug discovery, and it relies on machine learning to facilitate the screening process. It enables the discovery of molecules that bind to a specific protein to form a drug. Despite its benefits, virtual screening generates enormous data and suffers from drawbacks such as high dimensions and imbalance. This paper tackles data imbalance and aims to improve virtual screening accuracy, especially for a minority dataset. For a dataset identified without considering the data’s imbalanced (...) nature, most classification methods tend to have high predictive accuracy for the majority category. However, the accuracy was significantly poor for the minority category. The paper proposes a K-mean algorithm coupled with Synthetic Minority Oversampling Technique to overcome the problem of imbalanced datasets. The proposed algorithm is named as KSMOTE. Using KSMOTE, minority data can be identified at high accuracy and can be detected at high precision. A large set of experiments were implemented on Apache Spark using numeric PaDEL and fingerprint descriptors. The proposed solution was compared to both no-sampling method and SMOTE on the same datasets. Experimental results showed that the proposed solution outperformed other methods. (shrink)

Toxic workplace environments, especially those involving gaslighting, are known to contribute to stress and excessive work habits, such as workaholism, which may hinder a nurse's agility—an essential skill in adapting to fast‐paced healthcare environments. However, the interplay between workplace gaslighting, workaholism, and agility in nursing remains underexplored. This study aims to investigate the relationship between workplace gaslighting, workaholism, and agility among nurses, focusing on how gaslighting moderates this relationship. This study is a multicenter cross‐sectional that was conducted among 594 full‐time (...) nurses from three major hospitals in Egypt. Data were collected using the Gaslighting at Work Questionnaire, Workforce Agility Scale, and Bergen Work Addiction Scale. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to test the study hypotheses. Results revealed that nurses reported moderate levels of workaholism, workplace gaslighting, and agility. Significant negative correlations were found between agility and both workplace gaslighting and workaholism. Gaslighting negatively moderated the relationship between workaholism and agility, exacerbating the impact of workaholism on nurses' ability to remain agile. The findings indicate that toxic workplace behaviors, such as gaslighting and workaholism, undermine nurses' agility. Regulatory safeguards are necessary to protect nurses from such environments, ensuring both their well‐being and the quality of healthcare services. These findings call for the development of national standards and policies to address workplace mental health and ensure accountability in healthcare settings. (shrink)

Background Home care nurses are central in providing holistic and compassionate care to patients in home-based palliative care. Ethical caring competency is essential for home care to sustain nurses’ integrity in the face of moral adversity. Interprofessional collaboration is vital for ensuring ethical decision-making and providing patient-centered care in home-based palliative care settings. Aim This study explored the predictive roles of interprofessional collaboration and moral resilience on ethical caring competency among home care nurses in home-based palliative care. Methods A cross-sectional (...) survey of 400 nurses was conducted from October to December 2023, utilizing standardized scales to measure interprofessional collaboration, moral resilience, and ethical caring competency. A convenience sample of 400 home care nurses was also included in this study. Correlation and linear regression analysis were used to clarify the associative and predictive findings. Ethical Considerations Ethical approval from the ethics committee, institutional permission, and informed consent from the participants were obtained for data collection. Results Correlation analysis showed significant positive correlations between the ethical caring competency, interprofessional collaboration, and moral resilience constructs, with coefficients ranging from 0.482 to 0.967. Linear regression revealed that management of collaborative systems and total moral resilience significantly predict ethical caring competency, explaining 14.6% and 36.6% of its variance, respectively. Other variables, such as the effects of collaboration and communication, did not significantly influence ethical caring competency. Conclusion The study highlights the significant impact of interprofessional collaboration, particularly the management of collaborative systems and moral resilience, on enhancing ethical caring competency among nurses. Implications Enhancing interprofessional collaboration and moral resilience through targeted strategies in nursing practice and education can significantly improve ethical caring competencies. These efforts are essential for delivering high-quality, patient-centered care and for fostering a healthcare environment that respects the ethical principles guiding nursing practice. (shrink)

This Handbook offers a comprehensive and timely analysis of Egypt’s development trajectory, aiming to inform forward-looking policies grounded in evidence and multidimensional research. At its core lies one guiding question: What would it take to unlock Egypt’s full development potential in a way that is more inclusive, sustainable, and resilient to future shocks? The book brings together contributions from 69 leading experts, researchers, and practitioners across disciplines to examine the key levers shaping Egypt’s economic and social outcomes. Structured into 6 (...) thematic parts and comprising 43 chapters, the Handbook delves into the country’s macroeconomic fundamentals, sectoral reforms, environmental challenges, and human development priorities. Topics include drivers of growth, fiscal and monetary policies, inflation dynamics, public investment, competition policy, and Egypt’s global economic relations. The book explores labor markets, education, gender equality, poverty and inequality, social protection, malnutrition, spatial dimension of development, noncommunicable diseases, demographic dividend, and environmental and climate-related issues. The final section examines governance, social capital, and the megatrends shaping Egypt’s long-term future. The Handbook provides a comprehensive, in-depth analysis of the Egyptian economy over the past seven decades, during which the country has lived through major shifts in the way it has pursued economic development. It provides diagnoses and highlights policy solutions for some of the most entrenched economic problems Egyptians are facing, with a view to building an action-oriented agenda and, ultimately, a different future. The Handbook is intended for academic researchers, students, development practitioners, and all those interested in understanding Egypt’s path toward sustainable development. (shrink)

This chapter explores the intricate interplay between centralization, decentralization, and localization within Egypt’s development strategies, addressing both historical and contemporary challenges faced by the country’s governance framework. Egypt’s enduring centralization has facilitated uniform policy implementation but often overlooks local needs, exacerbating regional disparities. Decentralization presents an alternative by distributing power to sub-national governments; however, its effectiveness is frequently hindered by political constraints and limited capacity. Localization emerges as a more adaptable approach, actively involving local communities and stakeholders in policy decision (...) making through consultations, monitoring, and evaluation, irrespective of whether governance is centralized or decentralized. Unlike decentralization, which primarily focuses on transferring authority, localization emphasizes the adaptation of national policies to local contexts while fostering citizen engagement. The chapter connects localization to the Sustainable Development Goals, advocating for a bottom-up, participatory approach to governance. By analyzing the evolution of Egypt’s governance, it posits that moving beyond the centralization–decentralization dichotomy through localization can significantly enhance inclusive governance and promote equitable development. (shrink)

Social capital has been shown by the literature to be a variable quite central to modernization, development, and economic growth. Over the past two decades, it has also been argued to be decisive in upholding the rule of law and, in some situations, enforcing pro-development behavior without the heavy arm of the law. In this chapter, we ask three questions. First, how does Egypt fare on the two main parameters of social capital—trust and cooperation—compared to the rest of the world? (...) Our answers—relying on findings from surveys, experiments, and content analysis—have put Egypt in a nonleading position. Second, we wanted to explain the low values of social capital in Egypt. We discuss multiple factors: defection being viewed as a social norm, historically determined family structures, and elite behavior. Finally, we discuss some potential interventions (some tested, others still in the theoretical development phase) to increase trust and cooperation among Egyptians. (shrink)

This chapter presents an in-depth analysis of the evolution and interlinkages among monetary and exchange rate policies along with capital flows in Egypt across five decades (1970–2023). This is in an attempt to assess the validity of the Mundell trilemma in optimally dealing with the three mutually exclusive policy options: free capital mobility, fixed exchange rate, and monetary autonomy. The analysis revealed that Egypt did not face this trilemma during the first 20 years of the analysis, given the prevalence of (...) capital controls beside experiencing a nonautonomous monetary policy. Starting from the Economic Reform and Structural Adjustment Program of the 1990s followed by the issuance of Law No. 88 for the year 2003, a modernized approach to monetary policy was adopted pursuing a strengthened role of the Central Bank of Egypt, a more liberalized exchange rate regime, and free capital mobility. With these reforms, authorities in Egypt started to face the impossible trinity, juggling the three policy options of controlling the exchange rate, having free capital mobility, and experiencing monetary policy independence. (shrink)

Egypt’s vulnerability to climate change stems from increasing water cycle variability, sea-level rise, and rising temperature, threatening critical sectors such as agriculture and tourism. This chapter advocates for a multidimensional approach to enhance the adaptation and resilience of the Egyptian economy. Effective adaptation requires expanding the scope of cost–benefit analysis to include productivity gains, environmental benefits, and social spillovers. Policies should adopt a comprehensive resilience cycle including preparedness, response, recovery, and continuous learning, supported by multilayered public financial instruments for resilient (...) infrastructure, retrofits, and residual climate risks insurance. The chapter also highlights the private sector’s critical role both as a “provider” of new technologies and solutions and a “purchaser” of adaptation services. Creating a vibrant private ecosystem necessitates incentives such as tax benefits, concessional financing, and public procurement programs, alongside robust governance frameworks to regulate adaptation markets and promote transparency. By aligning public and private efforts, Egypt can enhance climate resilience, foster innovation, and achieve sustainable economic growth while safeguarding vulnerable sectors and communities. (shrink)

A healthy financial sector, capable of attracting and supporting both foreign and domestic direct investment, is crucial for creating a conducive investment environment in any economy, particularly in emerging markets like Egypt. However, the relationship between financial development and economic growth has been a subject of ongoing scholarly debate and empirical research in economics. While it is widely acknowledged that financial systems play a crucial role in facilitating investment, innovation, and resource allocation, the precise nature and magnitude of their impact (...) on economic growth remain subject to ongoing theoretical contestation and empirical investigation. Our analysis, spanning the period 1970 to 2023, reveals that Egypt’s financial sector has diversified significantly, with NBFIs complementing the traditional banking sector. Using the VAR model, Granger causality tests confirm that financial access, depth, efficiency, and stability each significantly drive economic growth, though the reverse is not observed. IRFs analysis highlights dynamic effects: financial access initially boosts growth before rebounding, depth stabilizes near zero, efficiency fluctuates, and stability transitions from negative to positive, reflecting resilience. Stock market capitalization emerges as a key driver, indicating the importance of advancing robust capital markets. Threshold analysis reveals enabling conditions—such as real per capita income, private net inflows, and governance—necessary to maximize the growth impacts of financial development dimensions. These findings emphasize the need for a balanced approach across access, depth, efficiency, and stability, while accounting for enabling factors, to cultivate a resilient financial system that sustains long-term growth. (shrink)

This chapter contributes a re-thought narrative of the evolution of socio-economic inequality in Egypt since the 1950s by incorporating other facets of inequality and exploring inequality of opportunity, which explains an important part of the Egyptian people’s capacity for upward mobility. The chapter starts by conducting a historical review of income and expenditure inequality, which is moderate by global levels, even after accounting for top incomes, and where there has been a strong reduction over the past 75 years. Wealth inequality (...) is also assessed, with Egypt showing moderate levels in global comparisons. Similarly, significant declines were found in social inequalities, including vertical and horizontal inequalities in health and education. However, the main challenge for Egypt lies in inequality of opportunity, which was persistently high, especially in secondary education. This constrains people’s ability to improve their economic standing and leaves them trapped in uncontrollable circumstances. (shrink)

For millennia, the population of Egypt and its economic activities have been heavily concentrated in the Nile Valley and Delta. Beginning in the late 1970s, the government of Egypt, concerned by this spatial imbalance, began to launch multiple efforts to deconcentrate the population and “invade” the desert. These efforts, which have continued over five decades, have included constructing new cities and communities, developing remote coasts for tourism, launching successive desert land reclamation schemes, establishing extensive industrial and logistical zones, and building (...) new development corridors outside the Nile Valley. This chapter assesses such extensive spatial development efforts by asking: Have they succeeded in their aim of redistributing Egypt’s rapidly growing population away from the crowded Nile Valley? What has been their record in generating new economic activities and providing employment opportunities? And to what extent have these spatial policies succeeded in providing affordable housing and economic opportunities for Egyptians of limited income? The chapter also examines the negative impact on existing cities and villages of a spatial policy that requires a massive and continued allocation of economic resources to new developments in the desert, and it raises the issue of distorted national development policies due to the state’s infatuation with mega-projects in the desert. (shrink)

Since the second half of the twentieth century, Egypt’s agricultural and food policies have undergone significant shifts and transformations, reflecting historical legacies, economic ideologies, and socio-political dynamics. While progress has been made to address issues such as land inequality and food security, persistent challenges such as low productivity, trade deficits, and environmental degradation highlight the need for comprehensive reforms and strategic transformation toward more resilient and sustainable food systems. By learning from past experiences, including both failures and successes, Egypt can (...) chart a more sustainable and inclusive path toward agricultural growth and development and food security in the future. This chapter adopts a systematic retrospective approach to overview major agrifood policies since the 1950s and critically assess their overall outcomes. Specifically, the chapter addresses three intertwined questions: How have Egyptian agrifood policies evolved over the past seven decades? To what extent have these policies achieved their intended outcomes? How can Egypt build a sustainable and resilient food system? Through addressing these questions, this chapter offers insights for Egyptian policymakers into fostering food system sustainability amid current and projected nature-induced stressors and socio-economic challenges. (shrink)

The chapter explores Egypt’s long-standing, complex relationship with the Nile River. It depicts the historical evolution of water-sharing agreements that have governed the Nile water management, the river flow trends across and within Egypt’s borders, its importance to Egypt, and the government policies and efforts regulating and preserving its management. The chapter analyzes the contemporary challenges facing Egypt in managing the Nile waters, highlighting the growing problem of water scarcity in terms of quality and quantity, which has devastating impacts on (...) economic growth, particularly for key sectors heavily dependent on the Nile waters, including agriculture, population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. The chapter also emphasizes climate change impacts, which exacerbate water scarcity concerns, threatening agricultural productivity, food security, and the country’s path toward development. In conclusion, it advocates for a holistic, innovative approach to water management, with enhanced stakeholder engagement across sectors to navigate these challenges and build a resilient future in the face of growing water scarcity. (shrink)

This chapter examines the institutional and political economy contexts of Egypt’s universal health coverage, emphasizing implications for health equity. It traces the health sector’s evolution from the 1960s to the enactment of the 2018 Universal Health Insurance (UHI) Law, identifying key institutional factors that shaped its trajectory. The chapter compares the current system’s coverage, structure, and financing with the new UHI system, highlighting its potential to address existing gaps. Drawing on findings from various studies, the latest National Health Accounts (2019/2020), (...) and pilot surveys, the analysis identifies the main institutional and political economy challenges to implementing the new system. It concludes that achieving equitable UHI requires a politically prudent approach prioritizing an inclusive policymaking process and strong public support. Strategies for enhancing the system’s sustainability include increasing public awareness of its benefits, adjusting financial mechanisms to be more progressive, and delivering quick outcomes. Without these considerations, the system risks reverting to its previous trajectory. (shrink)

Social protection policies, aiming at reducing economic and social vulnerability, poverty, and large discrepancies in access to services, have consistently been viewed not only as morally right but also as a central indicator and guarantor of long-term development and political stability. In this chapter on social protection in Egypt, we aim to tackle three points. First, we start with a brief discussion of the dilemmas typically faced by low- and middle-income countries with regard to social protection programs. We then move (...) to present the historical trajectory of social protection programs in Egypt. Our main focus is the period starting from 1952 until today. We used data of the Egyptian Household Income, Expenditure, and Consumption Survey and the authors’ own original survey and focus group data to conduct a performance assessment test of two of Egypt’s social assistance programs: the Takaful and Karama Programs and the Urgent Response Programs rolled out during the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020. Specifically, we assess how effective these programs have been in targeting the poor in Egypt. (shrink)

Egypt has faced an alarming challenge for decades in creating enough jobs for its booming labor force. Although Egypt has undertaken many economic reforms since the 1970s that successfully achieved high economic growth and macroeconomic stability, they were inadequate in creating sufficient and high-quality jobs. Long-run structural factors are core drivers of poor labor market outcomes in the Egyptian context; thus, this chapter aims to explain how these long-run structural factors are responsible for the Egyptian labor market’s current performance. In (...) doing so, the chapter first provides a brief historical overview of the growth–employment nexus in Egypt in light of different economic policies since the economic openness of the 1970s. Second, it addresses the informality problem in Egypt by highlighting its evolution and key characteristics. Third, it tackles different structural factors that possibly explain why growth outcomes have not trickled down and are reflected in employment levels and quality. (shrink)

This chapter delves into the persistent issue of malnutrition, which is a critical public health issue with far-reaching economic consequences in Egypt. Focusing on the period from 2000 to 2021, we study socio-economic disparities in malnutrition among Egyptian women of reproductive age. To analyze the evolution of these disparities, we employ the health concentration index and Wagstaff’s health shortfall index. Additionally, we investigate the key determinants driving these socio-economic health inequalities through a recentered influence function regression approach. Our findings provide (...) a wide-ranging perspective of nutritional inequality patterns and their correlates, enriching the evidence available for informed public health policy discussions. (shrink)

Egypt’s integration in global value chains (GVCs) has increased only slightly over time and remains low compared to other developing countries. The objective of this chapter is therefore to examine the evolution and composition of Egypt’s GVC-related trade flows and to compare these with a selected sample of developing countries. Several key challenges stemming from trade policy, the business environment, competition policy, and the quality of institutions, as well as corruption and political connections, may explain the relatively weak performance of (...) Egypt in GVCs. We investigate Egypt’s participation in GVCs at the macro and at the firm level, using data from multiple sources and resorting to several definitions of GVC participation. Overall, we find that Egypt’s trade policy became more restrictive over time. The gradual decline in tariff rates was accompanied by a rise in nontariff measures, the persistence of burdensome services and behind-the-border policies, and a deterioration of competition in the domestic market. Moreover, political connections and corruption create a privilege for some firms, allowing these to perform better and increasing their likelihood of participating in GVCs. (shrink)

Violence against women and girls is considered the most widespread form of human rights violation worldwide. The chapter discusses the phenomena of violence in public spaces and inside households, with a focus on intimate partner violence (IPV). It sheds light on the characteristics of Egyptian women vulnerable to IPV and highlights the related costs. Violence practices impose significant direct and indirect costs on the victim, her household, and the whole economy. These costs include healthcare and legal costs, decline in productivity, (...) and impeded economic growth. In spite of the role played by the Egyptian government to end violence against women and girls, the chapter shows that several challenges remain. Challenges include traditions, law enforcement, lack of awareness, and missing data required to study the phenomenon of violence and its cost to provide evidence-based recommendations. (shrink)

This chapter investigates how Egypt has responded to a series of transformative disruptions which include war and geopolitical conflicts, debt and financial crises, natural disasters, and disease outbreaks. This complex interplay of domestic and international disrupters has shaped Egypt’s trajectory in the past decades. Through a detailed analysis of these pivotal challenges, the chapter explores the opportunities and risks the challenges present and highlights the key pillars shaping Egypt’s development trajectory. Focusing on sustainability, we examine the factors influencing progress and (...) pose the central question: can Egypt leverage these disruptions as catalysts for reshaping its future and achieving sustainable development? (shrink)

This chapter offers a bird’s-eye view of Egypt’s middle class from the 1990s until 2020, covering almost three decades of socio-economic shifts. It relies on a social definition to capture the size of the middle class and examines the degree of poverty and vulnerability among the middle class using the national poverty line and poverty line multiples to identify five distinct income groups. We use data from Egypt’s Household Income, Expenditure, and Consumption Surveys for periods between 1995 and 2020. The (...) findings reveal that Egypt’s social middle class is not hollowing out, but rather, it is becoming poorer and more vulnerable. In 1995/96, only 10.9% of Egypt’s middle-class individuals were under the poverty line; this share has nearly doubled, reaching 21.5% by 2019/2020. The chapter concludes with policy implications that could set forward a brighter path for Egypt’s ailing yet competent middle class. (shrink)

Investment plays a critical role in Egypt’s economic growth, yet its dynamics remain shaped by persistent state dominance, crowding out private-sector development. This chapter examines the interplay between public and private investment, using econometric analysis to assess their impact on gross domestic product growth. Our findings suggest that while public investment initially stimulates economic activity, it increasingly displaces private-sector investment over time, leading to inefficiencies and reduced long-term growth potential. The dominance of state-owned enterprises, regulatory constraints, and high government borrowing (...) further exacerbate these effects by limiting private access to markets and credit. Despite repeated reform efforts, including the more recent State Ownership Policy and privatization initiatives, the state’s footprint in the economy remains extensive. To achieve sustainable, private sector-led growth, Egypt must implement structural reforms with a whole-of-government approach to enhance competitive neutrality, improve access to finance, and foster a more predictable investment climate. The chapter underscores the urgent need to recalibrate economic policies, shifting from state-driven investment toward a more balanced, market-oriented approach that encourages private-sector participation and long-term economic resilience. (shrink)

This chapter provides a holistic analysis of economic growth and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in Egypt. Using data from 1970 to 2022, it highlights how rapid industrialization has driven emissions, illustrating a persistent coupling between economic growth and environmental degradation. Power and industrial sectors appear as the largest contributors to GHG emissions. Recent efforts, including energy-efficient technologies and green reforms, show early signs of decoupling, signaling potential for a green transition. The chapter also scrutinizes pivotal environmental policies and their effectiveness (...) in reducing emissions while supporting economic growth. As Egypt faces rising temperatures and escalating climate risks, adaptive policies are critical to achieving long-term sustainability. These efforts are at an early stage, and sustained commitment is required to achieve meaningful decoupling and meet climate targets. Insights are offered on how to balance economic growth with the global climate action needed, paving the way for a low-carbon future. (shrink)

This chapter examines the impact of digitalization on the subjective and objective well-being of Egyptians, employing a mixed-methods approach. The qualitative component comprises a comprehensive examination of Egypt’s information and communication technology industry’s history and evolution alongside well-being indicators covering the period from 1954 to 2023. The quantitative component involves analyses of the short- and long-term dynamics between digital transformation and well-being by employing two separate models of ARDL. The empirical results reveal a negative short-term relationship between digitalization and objective (...) well-being but a positive long-term relationship from 1990 to 2021. Conversely, the findings indicate a negative relationship between subjective well-being and digitalization from 2005 to 2021 in the long run and no significant relationship in the short run. Consequently, this chapter recommends addressing digital illiteracy, the digital divide, and exclusion to bridge the digital usage and coverage gaps, thereby mitigating the potential negative impact of digitalization on Egyptians’ well-being. (shrink)

This chapter aims to understand the link between governance and economic development in Egypt. It highlights controversies that exist in the empirical literature while discussing those interlinkages. It descriptively clarifies Egypt’s performance with respect to the World Governance Indicators (WGIs) through the past three decades and how high ranking in those indicators was often linked to declining growth performance. The analysis highlights the gap between de jure and de facto institutions, which has affected Egypt’s WGI scores and growth trajectory. The (...) chapter also identifies key challenges to good governance, such as corruption and weak rule of law, and reviews government efforts to address these issues. It also sheds light on the potential reforms to enhance and develop the governance structure and institutional performance. The chapter recommends implementing continuous, inclusive, and balanced reforms that ensure consistency and cooperation across institutional areas. It highlights that institutional reform is a complex, time-consuming process requiring sustained resources and commitment to achieve its objectives. (shrink)

We use Penn World Table 10.0 data, which combine new infor mation on labor shares, physical capital, human capital, and total factor productivity (TFP), to analyze the contribution of factor accumulation and TFP to Egypt’s growth from 1955 to 2019. The objective of this chapter is to develop an understanding of Egypt’s growth experience, whether it was factor-based or productivity-based. We analyze the evolution of TFP in Egypt. Our findings show that Egypt’s growth experience has been capital-based rather than productivity-based. (...) TFP has indeed deteriorated over the entire period of analysis. Despite some fluctuation, there has been negative average TFP growth rate over the past 70 years at –0.1% per annum. Egypt needs to focus more on TFP growth to sustain future economic growth. (shrink)

This chapter provides an in-depth analysis of fiscal policy and budgetary reforms in Egypt by focusing on budget classification systems and budgetary approaches and evaluating budget institutions throughout the budget cycle. It also traces the evolution of the key fiscal policy aggregates from the pre-1980s era to the recent reforms, in eight sub-periods divided based on prevailing economic conditions and the fiscal policy behavior. The analysis reveals that strengthening budgetary institutions and implementing a comprehensive set of public financial management (PFM) (...) reforms are essential for improving Egypt’s fiscal performance. Yet, it is crucial to accurately identify and address the existing institutional and political economy barriers for the implementation of these reforms. (shrink)

Economic growth relies on human capital, physical capital, and the factors influencing both. Two-thirds of a nation’s wealth comes from human capital, shaped by the knowledge, skills, and health people gain over time. Egypt has significantly reduced the burden of communicable, maternal, and child health diseases over the past six decades. However, noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) have been rising, resulting in serious economic impacts on productivity and human capital. In 2022, the direct and indirect costs of NCDs, including productivity loss, ranged (...) between 5.04% and 7.74% of gross domestic product (GDP), with total economic costs reaching 9.28% of GDP. To address the NCD rise, policies should focus on primary prevention targeting behavioral and environmental risk factors through population-based interventions, secondary prevention and strengthening primary health care across public and private sectors to reduce medical costs, and accelerating universal health insurance system implementation to improve health coverage and productivity. (shrink)

Competition has been embedded in Egyptian law since the 1800s, yet it was not until 2005 that a standalone framework emerged to safeguard it from conflicting objectives. Although modern competition laws appeared as early as 1890 and spread widely across emerging economies by the early 1990s, Egypt was a latecomer to this trend. This chapter argues that the delays in Egypt’s competition laws are rooted in the complexities of its political economy. Policies and tools enabling or hindering competition developed endogenously (...) from the political economy, heavily influenced by shifting regimes and ideologies. Tracing Egypt’s path from a state-driven economy in the 1960s to today’s more competitive environment, the chapter highlights the processes, trade-offs, and unique challenges that distinguish the country’s experience. Finally, it examines the institutionalization of competition in Egypt, discussing evolving priorities, enduring obstacles, and the significant potential for growth in an increasingly globalized market. (shrink)

This chapter analyzes the spatial distribution of aggregate and sectoral greenfield foreign direct investment (FDI) flows across 27 Egyptian governorates from 1972 to 2020. The largest share of greenfield FDI goes into services, followed by manufacturing, whereas agriculture attracts little FDI. A significant characteristic of FDI in Egypt is its highly uneven spatial distribution across governorates. Employing classical inequality indicators reveals that the concentration first declined until the late 1990s, then stagnated in the 2000s, before increasing again in 2011–2020. It (...) further shows that services FDI exhibits the strongest spatial concentration. The concentration of FDI in only a few governorates may limit the spread of spillovers throughout the economy, increasing regional disparities. The chapter discusses the trade-off between agglomeration economies and regional equity, recommending policies to promote domestic private investment, which has been shown to attract new FDI and maximize its benefits. It also highlights the role of services FDI in enhancing local firm efficiency and promoting regional growth. (shrink)

In the past few decades, a debate about the relationship between population and sustainable development dominated the public scene intensely in Egypt. There were two arguments competing, with the first suggesting that population growth hindered the ability of the country to accelerate sustainable development and the other that failure to achieve sustainable development was the reason for the relatively high population growth. In this chapter, evidence supporting each argument is explored within the Egyptian context. The determinants of population dynamics are (...) analyzed for macro and micro determinants within each of the following periods: 1952–1980, 1981–2010, and 2011–2023. The chapter concludes that population dynamics (from one side) and social, economic, and environmental development (from the other side) impact each other and suggests that population dynamics should be integrated within policies that address sustainable development. The chapter ends by identifying six gaps that need to be addressed to achieve sustainable development at a faster pace. (shrink)

Egypt’s debt problem has persisted for over 72 years, transcending ideological shifts and political regimes. Debt crises have typically erupted not at peak debt ratios but when debt service became unmanageable due to political-economy constraints and inadequate institutions that have always driven procyclicality in fiscal policy. Weak monetary coordination, reliance on external rents and exit deals, insufficient resource mobilization, and—more recently—increased reliance on volatile capital flows have sustained Egypt’s unbalanced growth model and unmanaged debt. Global financial volatility and geopolitical pressures (...) have only acted as accelerators. Recent regulatory, fiscal, and monetary reforms mark meaningful progress in addressing Egypt’s long-standing structural constraints. Building on this momentum, the chapter proposes a three-layered reform proposal—structural, institutional, and global—aligned with ongoing domestic reforms and the global momentum. This proposal emphasizes the need for resilient, investment-driven growth, strengthened debt governance, and deeper engagement with global debt and sustainable-finance initiatives. (shrink)

The Egyptian economy has endured a structural fiscal deficit for the better part of the past fifty years. Contrary to the common misconception that high public spending drives this deficit, the core of Egypt’s fiscal problem primarily lies in a shortfall in public revenues. Egypt’s public revenue shortfall is an inherited problem with historical roots. The extended period taken for the economic transition from a socialist model to a free market economy led to a hesitant transition, and this has resulted (...) in two primary hurdles: restricted tax system efficiency and the persistent underperformance of state-owned enterprises. These two essential difficulties have consequently led to a continuous decline in both tax and nontax revenues. This chapter analyzes the challenges in both tax and nontax revenues in Egypt. It proposes a reform road map to enhance revenue generation and foster long-term economic growth. (shrink)

This chapter investigates Egypt’s economic transformation from 1960 to 2022. Our findings reveal how Egypt’s labor productivity growth has been below its potential. In particular, labor reallocation toward relatively lower value-added, non-tradable sectors has weighed negatively on economy-wide productivity growth, especially since the 1990s. Contributing factors include recurring macroeconomic imbalances, underinvestment in human capital, a challenging business environment, and underdeveloped institutions. Consequently, Egypt’s global competitiveness has suffered, with exports remaining limited in terms of sophistication, and have diverged away from global (...) demand trends. The analysis concludes by offering recommendations for addressing these challenges and promoting a more inclusive economic transformation. (shrink)

Gender roles can enhance gender equality between men and women if they call for equal opportunities between all citizens regardless of sex. The status of Egyptian women has progressed over the years, mainly in health and education. However, with the women caregivers/men breadwinners model dominating Egyptian culture, several challenges remain at the economic, political, and social levels. The chapter highlights the significant influence of both formal and informal institutions on gender equality in Egypt. Our analysis suggests that improved outcomes for (...) women are closely linked to a coordinated approach that not only focuses on reforming the legal framework but also addresses societal values and norms. The chapter concludes that progress toward gender equality often requires a comprehensive approach that addresses legal, social, and cultural barriers and promotes inclusive policies and practices. (shrink)

Egypt’s economic history reveals a complex development journey, characterized by significant transformations. Historically, economic reform policies have often been experimental, influenced by political factors, domestic instability, and regional dynamics rather than being guided by a coherent ideology. Weak institutional adaptation, and exclusive and extractive institutions, have led to unsustainable reforms, and the blurred state–business dynamic has weakened the development of a healthy, competitive market-led system until the very recently introduced reforms toward a more market-led model. Historically, political dominance and regime (...) stability have overshadowed economic reforms, leading to skewed outcomes that favor powerful groups over broader efficiency. Geopolitical influences and post-colonial legacies shaped economic policies during the 1950s through the 1980s. These dependencies have led to increased external vulnerabilities and diminished Egypt’s ability to remain resilient in the face of escalating and more frequent shocks. Through digging deeper into the political economy and root causes of Egypt’s current developmental challenges, the analysis reiterates the urgent need to revisit Egypt’s development model, advocating for an organic approach to economic reform that acknowledges the deep-rooted problems. It advocates for a stronger commitment to institutional reforms, limiting political dominance and empowering the role of the legislature, all while reducing reliance on external forces and promoting an autonomous model of sustainable development. (shrink)